Prepositions

   A.   Preposition:

A preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or a pronoun and some other word in a sentence.

The preposition is placed before the noun or the pronoun (or any other word acting like a noun, for example, a gerund) whose relation with some other word it shows:

1.      The cat is under the table. (under, shows the relation between the table and the cat.)

2.      The cat ran after the mouse. (after, shows the relation between the mouse and running.)

    B.     Preposition of time:

A number of prepositions may be used to denote time; on Monday, before night, during the night, till tomorrow, after lunch. In most cases, it is easy to know which preposition to use. The following prepositions, however, need extra attention.

1.      At, on, in

(a)   At usually denotes a definite point of time but can also be used for indefinite periods:

at 3 o’clock, at midnight

at the beginning of the class

at the end of the meeting

All of the above sentences show definite points of time.

at dawn, at night

at Christmas, at Diwali

The above sentences show indefinite periods of time.

(b)   On is used with days and dates:

on Monday, on 5^th December

on the Diwali day, on Christmas eve

on the evening of the 6^th March

(c)    In is used with parts of the day, month, year, season:

in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening

in summer, in winter

in March, in 1983

(d)   In is also used with the future tense to show the period in which an action will happen:

in two hours, in a few minutes, in a fortnight

Carefully note the difference between in and within:

in = at the end of

within = before the end of

I shall be back in a week. (when a week is over.)

I shall be back within a week. (before a week is over.)

2.      By

It denotes the latest time at which an action will be over:

The show will be over by 6 p.m. (it may be over before it is 6, but the latest time at which it can be over is 6.)

3.      Since, for

Since and for are often used with perfect continuous tense. Since is used with the point of time at which an action started. (the action continues till the present moment.)

He has been working since 9’o clock.

For is used to suggest the period of time for which an action has been going on:

I have been waiting for two hours.

Since: The emphasis is on the point at which the action started.

For: The emphasis is on the period for which an action has been going on.

4.      From

It denotes the starting point of an action. It is almost always used with to or till/until:

The examination will be held from 8 a.m. to 11 a.m.

He was the Chief Minister of Assam from 1984 till 1989.

    C.    Prepositions of position:

1.      At, in

(a)    At has the idea of an exact point; it is used with villages, small towns. In has the idea of a larger area and is used while speaking of bigger towns, states, countries:

at Karol Bagh, in New Delhi, at Ambala, in England, at the end, in the middle; also, in a factory, in a bank.

(b)   At conveys the idea of general neighbourhood; in conveys the idea of something contained:

Please sit at the table when you eat.

I shall meet you at Connaught Place.

Turn left at the next crossing.

The jam bottle is in the refrigerator.

The stamps are lying in the drawer.

2.      Between, among

Between is used with two persons or things, among is used with more than two:

A small table was lying between the two chairs.

The hare hid among the bushes.

He was happy to be among his friends again.

3.      On, upon

Both on and upon can be used while speaking of things at rest; upon is used with things in motion:

My bag is on/upon the table.

The cat sprang upon the table.

4.      Above, over

Both above and over mean higher than.

Sometimes we can use either of them:

The flags waved over our heads.

The flags waved above our heads.

But over can also mean covering, or vertically above:

My father put a blanket over me.

There is a bridge over the stream.

There is a fan exactly over the table.

5.      Below, under

Both below and under mean lower than. Sometimes we can use either of them. But under also means vertically below.

It also has the idea of contact.

There was a beautiful lake below us in the valley.

The traveller was resting under a tree.

She put the book under her pillow.

Below is also used in measurements to suggest the idea of being lower than:

The temperature was 3 degrees below normal.

    D.    Prepositions of movement and direction:

1.      Prepositions of direction towards: to, towards, into, at, for, against

(a)    To has the sense of destination, towards of direction:

We went to the school. (reached the school)

We went towards the school. (in the direction of the school)

(b)   Into denotes movement towards the interior of something:

The dog jumped into the pond.

She quietly walked into the room.

(c)    At has the idea of hitting:

She threw the stone at the dog.

(d)   For suggests the beginning of a movement:

The workers left for the factory.

The child leaves for the school early in the morning.

(e)    Against shows pressure or contact:

He threw the bag against the wall.

2.      Prepositions of direction from: From, off, out of

(a)    From is used with the point of departure:

She has already gone from the office.

(b)   Off shows separation. It is used in the sense of from the surface of, down from:

He fell off the cycle.

The ball rolled off the table.

(c)    Out of is the opposite of into. It means from the interior of:

The bird flew out of the cage.

3.      Other prepositions showing movement are: through, over, along, across, round, up, down.

4.      We travel by car, by bus, by train, by air, by boat, by sea.

We walk on foot, we ride on horseback, we go on a bicycle.

    E.     Correct use of certain prepositions:

1.      By, with

By is used to express the agent or doer of an action; with relates to the instrument with which the action is done:

The old man was beaten by some strangers with a stick.

The lawn was mown by the gardener with a mower.

2.      After, in

After is used to denote some period of time in the past; in is used to show some period of time in the future:

She came back home after an hour.

We will come back home in an hour.

3.      Beside, besides

Beside means by the side of; besides means in addition to:

Please put this bag beside the box.

Besides giving me books, she gave me her notes.

4.      Verbs of command, request, invitation, advice normally do not take the preposition to after them.

Such verbs are: advise, ask, beg, command, encourage, invite, tell, request, warn:

She advised me to wait. (and not advised to me)

I requested the teacher to explain the poem again.

She invited all her friends to her sister’s wedding.

5.      On time, in time

On time = at the arranged time; not before, not after

In time = not late, with a comfortable margin:

We reached the station in time for the train.

The train started on time.

Conjunctions

    A.    Defining a conjunction

    A conjunction is a word used to join words, groups of words or sentences.

1.      The sun was shining and a hot wind was blowing.

2.      There was noise around me but I was not disturbed.

3.      Rice and curry is a popular dish.

In the above sentences, the words in bold letters are all conjunctions.

    B.     Coordinating conjunctions

A conjunction used to join two independent statements or two statements of equal rank or importance is called a coordinating conjunction. (coordinating means of equal rank).

In sentences 1 and 2 above, and and but are coordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions are of four types.

1.      Conjunctions that merely add one statement or fact to another.

And, both … and, as well as, no less than, not only … but also are common conjunctions of this type:

And

The weather was fine and the sea was calm.

(The weather was fine. The sea was calm.)

The door was open and things were lying scattered.

(The door was open. My things were lying scattered.)

Both … and

She is both intelligent and hardworking.

(She is intelligent. She is hardworking.)

Neeraj gave me both books and notes.

(Neeraj gave me books. Neeraj gave me notes.)

As well as

He as well as his father is sincere.

(He is sincere. His father is sincere.)

The captain as well as the crew has arrived.

(The captain has arrived. The crew has arrived.)

No less than

He no less than his brother is guilty.

(His brother is guilty. He is equally guilty.)

I am no less grateful to your father than to you.

(I am grateful to you. I am equally grateful to your father.)

Not only … but also

He was given not only a merit certificate but also a handsome scholarship.

(He was given a merit certificate. He was given a handsome scholarship.)

The train was not only late but also fully packed.

2.      Conjunctions that express opposition or contrast between two statements.

But still, yet, nevertheless, whereas, while, only are conjunction of this type.

But

The train was fully packed but we got comfortable seats.

(The train was fully packed. We got comfortable seats.)

The earthquake was quite severe but the temple was not damaged.

Still, yet

Prem Chand is quite rich, still he is not contended.

Prem Chand is quite rich, yet he is not contended.

(Prem Chand is quite rich. He is not contended.)

I was angry, still I did not scold him.

I was angry, yet l I did not scold him.

Nevertheless

We were very tired; nevertheless, we continued the work.

(We were very tired. We continued the work.)

I am hard up; nevertheless, I will give you some money.

Whereas, while

Whereas (or while) wise men prefer virtue, fools prefer beauty.

(Wise men prefer virtue. Fools prefer beauty.)

Rice needs plenty of water whereas (or while) cotton needs black soil.

Only

I am all right, only I am tired.

(I am all right. I am tired.)

I could come, only I am busy.

3.      Conjunctions that express a choice between two alternatives.

Or, otherwise, else, either … or, neither … nor are common conjunctions of this type.

Or

You must apologise, or you will be dismissed.

(You must apologise. You will be dismissed.)

You must be bold, or you will not be able to face the world.

Either … or

Either attend to your lesson or leave the class.

(Attend to your lesson. Leave the class.)

We can either walk down or take a bus.

Neither … nor

He is neither lazy nor careless.

(He is not lazy. He is not careless.)

Kavita neither looks after the house nor takes up a job.

Otherwise, else

Hurry up, otherwise you will be late for the school.

Hurry up, else you will be late for the school.

(Hurry up. You will be late for the school.)

4.      Conjunctions by which one statement or fact is inferred from another.

For, so, therefore are common conjunctions of this type.

For

She will rise in life, for she is sincere and hardworking.

Let me take leave of you, for I am getting late.

So, therefore

He did not report in time, so he was not selected.

He did not report in time, therefore he was not selected.

We missed the bus, so we took a taxi.

We missed the bus, therefore we took a taxi.

    C.    Subordinating conjunctions

A conjunction used to join two statements, one of which is dependent on the other is called a subordinating conjunction.

Look at this sentence:

We continued to work, although we were getting late.

In this sentence, although we were getting late is a subordinate clause, for it cannot stand on its own. Therefore, although is a subordinating conjunction. Subordinating conjunctions may be classified according to their meaning.

1.      Subordinating conjunctions introducing noun clauses

The various kinds of clauses (noun, adjective, adverb) are already discussed. Here, let us understand that there are some subordinating conjunctions that introduce a particular type of subordinate clause.

That

She said that she was confident of her success.

Are you sure that you have the right address?

I am afraid that I will not be able to come.

It appears that Mrs. Rana is in a bad mood.

If/weather

She asked me if I had sufficient woolens for the winter.

They wanted to know whether I could accept the proposal.

2.      Subordinating conjunctions introducing adverb clauses

Time: when, whenever, before, after, till, since, as soon as, while as

We felt thrilled when our football team won the zonals.

I will give him your message whenever I see him.

Celebrations had begun before the results were formally declared.

The gates were locked after the guests had left.

Father asked me to stay at home till he returned.

She has not written to me since she left.

Turn off the gas as soon as water starts boiling.

He checked the accounts while I took a cup of tea.

I came across an old friend as I was walking to the school.

Place: where, wherever

She found her bag where she had left it in the shop.

Wherever he goes, he wins respect.

Cause or reason: because, since, as

I prefer to live in Shimla because the climate of the hills suits me.

Water supply to his house was disconnected since he had not paid the bill.

We did not call him for an interview as we had not received his application in time.

Result or consequence: so … that, such … that

He spoke so fast that I could not take down any notes.

There was such a loud noise that I could not have even a wink of sleep.

Purpose: so that, that, lest

I stayed back home so that my grandfather might not feel lonely.

We eat that we may live.

He is wearing a woolen coat lest he should catch cold.

Condition: if, unless

You will be given a permanent job if your work is satisfactory.

You will not be allowed to enter unless you have an invitation card.

Concession or contrast: though, although, although … yet, even if, even though

She is humble though she is rich.

Although he lost heavily yet he did not lose heart.

I shall not betray my country even if I have to sacrifice my life for it.

Comparison: as … as, than

He is as clever as his brother (is).

Anu is cleverer than her sister (is).

Manner: as, as if

They acted as they had been advised.

He behaved as if he were angry.

    D.    Conjunctions used in pairs

Some conjunctions convey their full sense only when they are used in pairs.

Either … or

Either you should return the book or pay its price.

We could watch the movie either on the video or in the hall.

Neither … nor

I am neither a fool nor a rogue.

They neither pay the rent nor vacate the house.

Although (though) … yet

Although India has rich resources yet it is poor.

Although she belongs to a rich family yet she is miserly.

These days it is preferred to use either although or yet instead of using the two of them together.

Although India has rich resources, it is poor.

Both … and

She is both intelligent and hard working.

The thief was both fined and imprisoned.

Such … as

Such land as is described here does not exist anywhere.

He is not such a man as you would like to marry.

Such … that

Such was his love for her that he gave up the throne in order to marry her.

Such was the intensity of her grief that she could not even weep.

So … as, as … as

He is not so brave as you think.

He is as brave as a lion (is).

As … so

As you sow, so shall you reap.

As the child is, so is the man.

So … that

She sang so sweetly that the whole hall resounded with cheers.

The speech was so moving that all eyes became wet.

Scarcely (hardly) … when

Scarcely (hardly) had we stepped out when we got drenched.

She had hardly recovered from malaria when she met with an accident.

Not only … but also

She can speak not only French but German also.

The room was not only cold but damp also.

No sooner … than

No sooner did I begin my homework than the telephone bell rang.

No sooner do the clouds appear in the sky than the peacocks begin to dance.

    E.     Joining sentences with the help of conjunctions

We can join short sentences with conjunctions. But we should be careful in the choice of the conjunction to be used. A wrong conjunction would either make the sentence look absurd or convey a meaning different from the one we wanted to convey.

Let us take some examples

1.      Daniel was very wise. The king did not trust him.

There is a contrast between these two statements. A wise man should have been trusted. But the king did not trust Daniel. So we should use some conjunction suggesting contrast: but, yet, still, although, etc.:

Daniel was very wise, yet the king did not trust him.

Although Daniel was very wise, the king did not trust him.

2.      We took a taxi for the stadium. We did not want to get late for the game.

Here the second statement expresses the purpose of the action mentioned in the first statement. So we should use a conjunction suggesting purpose: so that, lest. etc.:

We took a taxi for the stadium so that we might not get late for the game.

We took a taxi for the stadium lest we should get late for the game.

Note that we have to make suitable changes while framing our sentence.

Adjective and its kinds

A.    An adjective is a word used to add something to the meaning of a noun (or a pronoun). Adjective means added to.

For example:

1.      Vasundhra is a tall girl.

2.      Ramdas is poor but happy.

3.      The teacher narrates interesting stories.

In sentences 1, 2 and 3 tall, poor, happy and interesting are the adjectives. They tell us what type of girl Vasundhra is, what kind of man Ramdas is and how he feels, what type of stories are narrated by the teacher. These adjectives make us understand more about Vasundhra, Ramdas and the stories.

Adjectives are of following kinds:

1.      Adjectives of quality: These adjectives tell us what kind of a person/thing is or they tell us about quality.

For example:

Akbar was a good and wise thing.

The sunflower is a bright flower.

2.      Adjectives of number: These adjectives tell us ‘how many’ of a thing. They may tell about a definite number (twenty five, four, six etc.) or an indefinite number/amount (few, some, several, much, less etc.).

These adjectives also tell us the order like – first, second, third etc.

For example: Vidya stood first in her class.

For example:

Many people were killed in the earthquake.

Geeta had only twenty rupees in her pocket.

The boy who came first, got the trophy

3.      Adjectives of quantity: These adjectives tell us ‘how much’ of a thing.

For example:

Renu needs a little training.

Mother cooked plenty of rice for all of them.

4.      Demonstrative adjectives: These adjectives tell us which person/thing is concerned/talked about

For example:

I like these bananas.

Rina likes such dresses.

Demonstrative adjectives are this, that, these, those, such, certain, yonder etc.

5.      Interrogative adjectives: These adjectives along with nouns are used for asking questions.

For example:

What is your name?

Which book is yours?

The words ‘whose’, ‘which’, ‘what’ and ‘who’ are used for asking questions.

6.      Possessive adjectives: These adjectives show possession or belonging. They answer the questions ‘whose’?

For example:

I have completed my work.

This is your reward.

Other possessive adjectives are mine, yours, his, her, their, our, its

B.     Formation of adjectives

We can form adjectives

1.      From nouns:

Honour – honourable; beauty – beautiful; slave – slavish

2.      From verbs:

Quarrel – quarrelsome; talk – talkative

3.      From other adjectives:

Black – blackish; red – reddish

C.    Degrees of comparison

1.      Adjectives of quality have three degrees of comparison – positive, comparative and superlative. For example,

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
Tall	Taller	Tallest
Easy	Easier	Easiest

2.      Look at the following illustrations:

The first man is an old man.

The second man is older than the first man.

The third man is the oldest of all.

·         The positive degree is used when no comparison is made.

The first man is an old man. (This old man is not compared with any other man. Hence we have used the positive degree.)

·         The comparative degree is used to compare two things or two groups of things.

The second man is older than the first man. (Two old men are being compared. Hence we have used the comparative degree.)

·         We use than with the comparative degree of an objective:

easier than, taller than, more beautiful than

Look at this sentence:

Preeti is taller than any other girl in the class.

It is important to use the word other in this sentence. It is incorrect to say: Preeti is taller than any girl in the class. The expression any girl in the class includes Preeti also. It is obvious that Preeti cannot be taller than herself. So we have to use the word other to exclude Preeti from the comparison.

We cannot use than in a sentence like

Preeti is the taller of the two girls.

·         The superlative degree is used to compare more than two things or two groups of things.

The third man is the oldest of all. (More than two old men are being compared. Hence we have used the superlative degree.)

·         We use the article the with the superlative degree of an adjective: the tallest of all, the easiest of the three, the richest person in the city.

D.    Making comparisons

1.      The comparison of equality is expressed by as … as:

Suchi is as tall as Geeta.

Chetan is as honest as Gaurav.

2.      The comparison of inferiority can be expressed in the following ways:

This book is not so (as) expensive as that.

This book is less expensive than that.

That book is more expensive than this.

Copper is not so (as) heavy as gold.

Copper is less heavy than gold.

Gold is heavier than copper.

E.     Correct use of adjectives

Some, any

Some is used in affirmative sentences, any in negative sentences:

I have already purchased some books.

I have not purchased any books.

What do we use in interrogative sentences?

Do you have some money?

Do you have any money?

Both these sentences are correct. But we use some if an affirmative answer is expected and any if a negative answer is expected.

F.     Much, many

Much means a large quantity of; it is used with uncountables:

Much ink

Much sorrow

Many means a large quantity of; it is used with the plurals of countables

Many books

Many years

G.    Little, few

Little is used with uncountables; few is used with countables:

Little help, little hope

Few friends, few books

H.    Little, a little, the little

Little = almost none (Little is almost a negative adjective)

A little = at least some

The little = the whole, though very little

I have little money. I cannot buy a bar of chocolate with it.

I have a little money. I can afford to buy a bar of chocolate with it.

I bought a bar of chocolate with the little money I had.

I.       Few, a few, the few

Few = not many, in fact almost none

A few = at least some

The few = all of them, though very few

Few friends visit me. So I am often lonely.

Sometimes a few friends visit me and we have a nice time.

The few friends I have visit me very rarely.

J.      Elder, eldest, older, oldest

Elder and eldest are used with close family relations like daughters, sons, sisters, brothers etc.:

My eldest brother has won the best athlete’s award.

Elder is not followed by than. So if we have to use than, we must use the word older:

Shuchi is older than Vandita.

Older and oldest denote age; they can be used with both persons and things:

Pankaj is older than Neeraj.

Mr. Mohan Lal is the oldest person in our colony.

This is the oldest pair of shoes I have.

K.    Later, latter, latest, last

Later and latest denote time. Latter and last denote position.

We shall be going to the hills in the later part of April.

What is the latest news?

Ram and Anand entered the finals; the latter won the match.

She prefers to sit on the last bench.

L.     Nearest, next

Nearest denotes distance; next denotes position:

Who lives nearest to the school?

Her house is next to mine.

M.   Comparatives ending in or

Senior, junior, inferior and superior are adjectives ending in ‘or’. These adjectives are followed by to and not by than:

He is senior to me by three years.

My pen is superior to yours.

N.    As … as, so … as

As … as is usually used with positive statements:

She is as cunning as a fox.

Her result was as good as we had expected.

In negative sentences, both as … as and so … as are acceptable.

She is not as cunning as you think.

She is not so cunning as her elder sister.

O.    Some adjectives represent the highest degree. They cannot be used in the comparative or superlative degree. Important adjectives of this kind are:

Unique, chief, complete, perfect, entire, full, ideal. We cannot have anything more complete or most complete; similarly we cannot think

Of anything more perfect or most perfect:

This was a unique plan. (And not a most unique plan.)